Eternal India Encyclopedia

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Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems

and growth of luxurious stem and foliage. Agnipurana and Krishi Parasara recognise the value of manuring to crops and describe the method of preparation of the compost which contribute to the fertility of the soil. Even though these authors did not investigate the precise chemical action of these manures, they certainly understood the fertilizing property and the physical effects of the manure upon the texture and its role on the water holding capacity of the soil. The Amarakosha gives the names of a number of agricultural implements which were in use such as langala, hala, (plough), yugakilaka (pin of yoke), langaladanda (shaft of the plough), prajana , todana (goad), kotisha (harrow), khanitral tie (spade or hoe), datra, lavitra (sickle), yotra (tie for fastening the yoke to the plough), medhi (post for threshing grain on the floor), surpa, praspotana (winnowing basket) and calani, titau (sieve). The Krishi Parashara gives a detailed description of the plough. Ac- cording to this the plough is made up of the following garts : Yuga (yoke), addacalla (pins of the yoke), isa (pole of the plough), niryola (rod of the plough exclusive of the pole and the plough- share), shaula (an extra piece of wood that tightly fixed the niryola pashika (plates), halasthanu (strong piece of wood fixed to the niryola at the end opposite to where the ploughshare is fixed) paccani (goad made of bamboo with iron top), abandha (iron rod which prevents niryola from getting out of the pole, yoktra (tie) and phala (ploughshare). Other implements are also mentioned like shrni (sickle), khanitra (hoe), musala (pestle), udukhala (mortar), shurpa (winnowing basket), (winnowing fan), calani (sieve) and methi (threshing post). Manuring practices were in vogue. The Brihatsamhita says that seeds are to be sown with the addition of pork or venison into the soil and sprinkled daily with water mixed with milk. The Agnipu- rana recommends manuring the soil with powdered barley, ses- amum and the offal matter of a goat mixed together and soaked in washings of beef for seven consecutive nights. The washings of fish should be sprinkled on these. The farmers of the ancient days were evidently aware of the fertilising properties of the flesh of animals, fish-washings and farm-yard manure consisting of the excreta of various animals. This was the result of practical experience and not based on scien- tific knowledge. Modern science has taught us that farmyard manure contains all the essential plant nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash but the ancient farmers had obtained this knowledge on the basis of empirical observations. Land was classified into 12 types depending on the fertility of the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics in the Amarakosha. The 12 types were urvara (fertile), ushara (barren), maru (desert), aprahata (fallow), shadrvala (grassy), pankila (muddy), jala- prayamanupa (watery), kaccha (land contiguous to water), shar- kara (land full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), sharkaravati (sandy), nadimatrika (land watered from a river) and devamatrika (land watered by rain). Due recognition was given to irrigation, both natural and artifi- cial. River water and monsoon accumulation was diverted to the fields in northern and north-eastern India whereas stored water in tanks, pools and wells was utilized in central, north-western and southern parts of India. Rules for erection of dykes and restoration of decayed dykes were also framed. During the eighth century, King

rainfall during the different seasons of the year. Panini’s land use classification included cultivated ( karsa ) and uncultivated waste land ( usara ) and pasture ( gochara ); crops grown and the quantities of seed required for sowing. Three crops, sown respectively in the rainy season and stored in Magha (Janu- ary-February); in autumn and stored in Chaitra (March-April); and third sown in spring stored in Jyestha (May-June) were mentioned during this period. Knowledge of the requirements of different crops led to a rudimentary form of crop rotation. The resources and needs of the farmer determined the number of crops undertaken and sometimes the state intervened in the additional crops that should be undertaken by the farmers in the interest of taxes that can be collected. Patanjali also informs of the mixed crops that were also undertaken. Megasthenes records that the Mauryan monarchs considered construction of tanks and reservoirs for irrigation as acts of welfare and religious merit, which the State was expected to provide. Thus, Pushyagupta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya constructed the Sudarshana Lake in Saurashtra, which was later restored by Tusaspa, the Yavana Governor of Ashoka. The breach suffered by this reservoir was repaired by the Parthian Minister ( amathya ) Suvishaka, the Governor of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler of that time. The successors of Rudradaman continued this tradition in western India. The central and south Indian tanks, constructed with great en- gineering skill during the beginning of this civilization, still serve the purpose for which they were made. The embankments on the river Kaveri, and the several canals, constructed by Karikala I during the first century A.D., for utilization of the water bear testimony to this effort. During this period, tank sub-committees of the village assemblies maintained the upkeep of the tanks. Under royal patronage like the Guptas in the Gangetic basin, Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar; of the Vakatakas and Chalukyas in the Deccan; and the Pallavas in the south agriculture got diversified and agricultural product-based trade flourished in different parts of this country during the Classical Age and later. The Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India, while describing the agricultural prosperity of India, during that period, has recorded the existence of a short duration rice (maturing in 90 days), wheat, ginger, mustard, tamarind, mango, melon, wood- apple, pear, plum, peach, apricot etc. Encyclopaedic references of the period like Amarakosha and the Brihatsamhita have special chapters for agriculture called Krishi Parasara which include the existing knowledge and practice relating to soil classification and land use; manuring, rotation of crops, irrigation, agricultural meteorology, tillage implements, pro- tection from diseases and pests, care of draught animals and grazing of cattle. The rites and ceremonies enjoined with religious practices, including the superstitions of the day, were intricately woven into the social fabric of the ancient Indians. The Amarakosha describes 12 types of land depending upon the soil, irrigation and physical characteristics. While the Bhu- mivarga describes the soils depending upon their texture, the Vai- syavarga describes soils fit for the different kinds of crops. The Brihatsamhita describes the seed treatment to ensure initiation of infloresence and fruit bearing of tree crops, sprouting