Eternal India Encyclopedia

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Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND TRADITIONS

Agricultural production for the Vedic people had the same con- notation as human reproduction, for mention has been made of cultivation of crops in Atharvaveda to “Scatter the seeds in the prepared ground (yoni )”. Even though mention exists of the cultivation of wheat and barley during the RigVedic period, rice must have been growing wild. It was not until the time the Taittiriya, Kathaka Samhitas and the Atharvaveda were written that rice must have been domesti- cated and the technology developed because references to good quality rice ( tandula, vrihi, sali ) as opposed to wild variety ( ni- vara), husked ( karna ) and unhusked ( akarna ), and rotation of crops, involving sowing of rice in summer and pulses in the winter, exists. During this period two harvests were undertaken. Rox- burgh, the famous botanist, acknowledges crop rotation as an Indian contribution to the Western world. The farmer seemed to possess a fairly good knowledge of the fertility of the land, selec- tion and treatment of the seeds, seasons of sowing and harvesting, rotation and other practices, manuring for increased production etc. Amongst the several domestic animals were bulls, oxen, sheep, goat and cows. The usefulness and importance of the cow is extolled in the RigVedic hymns.

The history of agriculture in India begins with the Indus Valley riparian culture. The alluvial soil, relatively heavy monsoon rainfall and the water from the Indus, provided substantial agricultural support to the teeming populations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The river made transport, trade and irrigation easy. One of the ideograms reveals the use of a toothed harrow for cultivation. Flood-irrigation and the arrangements for drawing water for irrigation by the use of a certain jar type pottery and long rope on contrivances like the wheel, similar to that utilised in the Near and Middle East, have been mentioned by Marshall and Mackay. The wheat unearthed during the Mohenjo-Daro period, which were identified as Triticum sphaerococcum and T. compactum, are still cultivated in the region of modern Punjab. Evidences exist that agriculture during those days comprised cultivation of wheat, bar- ley, sesamum, peas, cotton, datepalm, pomegranate and banana. The querns (a stone handmill) found in the excavations show how the grinding of the grain was done on an extensive scale.

Grinding Millstone

Rotary Mill

Seal of a bull - Mohenjo-Daro During the Vedic period farmers were also conversant with the principles of collecting water from catchment areas in hilly terrain and carrying it through canals. Mention also exists of 'asmachakra', a water lifting wheel device made of stone to which pails were strapped with leather belts, 'drona', 'ghatayantra' or 'udghatana' which are drum shaped wheels to which 'ghata' or earthen pots were tied at equal distances which were operated by endless ropes. During the post-Vedic, Magadha period, when political unifica- tion was attempted, taxes were collected from subjects who fol- lowed different livelihoods (vartta or vritti), vocations like agricul- ture ( krishi ), cattle raising ( pasupalana ) and trade ( vanijya ). The Arthasastra of Kautilya also mentions settlement of sub- jects in unoccupied ( sunyanivesa ) lands with an aim to increase agricultural production. Construction and maintenance of irrigation works ensured continued productivity of land. Keeping fallow of fertile uncultivated land was considered a culpable offence. Land use classification based on the status of cultivation or position was attempted. Similarly, the suitability of land to the crop was also well documented. The Arthasastra also defined the qualifications and job de- scriptions of the “Sitadhyaksa” or the Director of Agriculture, who should be conversant with the suitability of the soil, ploughing, preparation of the soil, selection of seeds etc., and correlate to the

Flat quern with roller pin

Invocations to Gods of plenty and prosperity in RigVedic and Atharvavedic hymns indicate that agriculture was an important vo- cation during the Vedic period. Agricultural practices had social and religious significance. Domestic rites and festivals during the Vedic period synchronized with the four main agricultural opera- tions like ploughing, sowing, harvesting and threshing, animal hus- bandry and maintenance of cattle. This practice is continued until this day. Similarities existing in the agricultural expressions in Vedic India and Iran suggest possible similarities in the agricultural prac- tices undertaken, at that time, in these two countries. The mention of a plough ( langala) drawn by six, eight, or twelve oxen to bring the soil to the desired tilth by repeated ploughing; sieve ( titau ) to separate grain from the straw, vessel ( urdara ) to measure grain, choice of the use of dried cow-dung (karisa , as opposed to fresh cow-dung), sakrt, as manure in several refer- ences of the RigVeda and the process of cultivation and harvesting using the plough and sickle, respectively in Kathaka Samhita, all point to the level of agriculture during this period.