Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

ARCHITECTURE

to prevent them scaling the city walls. It is evident that the im- provement in the firing range and the firepower of guns and cannons necessitated further strengthening of the fortifications of cities and forts. As a result of development in cannons their length and weight also increased, thus necessitating firm base for mounting them and also provision of ramps along with the ramparts. Kautilya has stated that pedestals should be provided for sataghni and other missiles. The term he uses for these pedestals is 'Indra Kosa'. The small holes and embrasures were meant for bows, arrows and muskets. The width of the rampart was governed by the fact that behind the row of arches and gunners close to the outer veneer of the wall, the second line of soldiers were there to throw other weapons mentioned earlier on the approaching enemy. The archers and those who operated the musket took the shelter of toothlike mereons to protect themselves from the enemy fire; the other soldiers behind them flung their weapons on the enemy in quick action and withdrew themselves to avoid being hit by the enemy and also to replenish their own stock of weapons. In addition to these two rows of warriors on the rampart, sufficient space was provided for the movement of troops which replaced the casualties and also for the movement of those who carried the wounded soldiers to a safer place for medical treatment. The weapons which had the most profound and significant impact in the art of warfare and the defensive fortifications were undoubtedly the guns and cannons which are frequently referred to in ancient Indian works. It appears that guns and cannons were in vogue in India during the medieval period. In the twelfth century we find pieces of ordnance being taken to battle fields in the armies of Prithviraj. From the devastating effect of these weapons it is evident that gunpowder must have been used in their weapons. Thus gunpow- der was known to the ancient Indians. The Sanskrit word for gunpowder is Agnichurna, (firepowder), which is occasionally shortened into Churna. Another important material which had a considerable impact on the design and development of fortifications was the use of hot oil and water in the battles around the fort. Hot oil and water were poured on the invading army during its final assault on the fort by scaling the fort walls. Holes for this purpose were provided in the fort walls at regular intervals and also on the fort gates. Meghas- thenes and other Greek writers also mention use of oil during the sieges. Five methods were employed to capture the enemy fort during siege operations. They were intrigue, 'apasarpan' or pretending to retreat, 'vamanam' or winning over the people, 'paryvasanam' or actual siege and 'avamartha' or taking by assault. Various methods by which enemy forts could be captured are discussed in detail in the 13th book of Kautilya's Arthashastra. Painters, carpenters, heretics, active merchants and other dis- guised spies may first be planted inside the enemy's fort. When the enemy's subjects assume the offensive, the invader might destroy their crops, water resources and stores, cut off their communica- tions and place all kinds of obstructions in their path. During the actual operations of the siege, the ditch surrounding the ramparts of a fort, if empty, should first be filled by the besiegers with water and with mud and sand if it contained water. Then reaching the outer walls of the parapet, and finding them strongly guarded with well- equipped warriors, machines, explosives and other material might be used to bring down the walls by assault. In the meantime, the

Throughout this historical account it is evident that the fortifica- tion of cities and towns was common in the ancient times in India. The elevated terrain was strategically important for controlling the surrounding territory and hence it was found suitable for building forts. All the hill forts were necessarily built near a source of water since in case of a prolonged enemy siege the scarcity of water proved suicidal and often necessitated the surrender of the fort to the enemy. The Sivatatva Ratnakara is another important work compiled in south India towards the end of the 17th century. The author of this work, Basava Bhupala (1684 to 1710) was the ruler of the Keladi kingdom which ruled from about 1500-1763 A.D. in the area corre- sponding to the entire coast of Kanara from Goa in the north to Cannanore in the south as also parts of the Shimoga district of Karnataka. The Sivatatva Ratnakara has an interesting chapter on the use and construction of fortresses. A king without a fort is compared to a snake without poison and an elephant without its rut. Here nine fortresses are mentioned adding three more to the clas- sical six of the Mahabharata. According to this, mountain and water forts are the best, while Danudurga and Naradurga belong to the inferior kind. Agnipurana classifies weapons as 1) Yantramukta : weapons launched by machines; 2) Panimukta : weapons released manually; 3) Muktasandharita : weapons thrown and drawn back; 4) Amukta : weapons which are not thrown; 5) Bahuyuddha : Personal combat by the body and arms. Fortified wall and gates were most important in the protection of the city and a number of weapons were thrown at the enemy from these walls and from the galleries provided above the gates. Some- times the city was surrounded by a number of walls for additional security and protection. Kautilya advises the construction of more than one city wall. He says that parapets in odd and even numbers, and with an intermediate space of 12 to 24 hastas from each other should be built above the ramparts. Raja Bhoj in his Samarangana Sutradhara also advocates the provision of multiple city walls. Meghasthenes informs us that the city of Pataliputra was sur- rounded by three walls; such fortified walls and the moats encircling them presented the most formidable obstruction for invading ene- mies. For strengthening fortifications, the walls were provided with deadly weapons. From the Indian epics we learn that they were guarded by sataghnis and darts. The Ramayana says that Ayodhya has sataghnis and darts. Likewise the city of Hastinapura and Indraprastha were also guarded by sataghnis. The walls of the city of Indraprastha were furnished with thousands of sharp hooks and sataghnis and numerous other weapons. In southern cities also the walls were provided with deadly weapons of attack. We are told that on the battlements of the city of Vanji also were mounted various mechanisms to throw missiles on those who attacked the fort. In the centre of the walls there were places constructed for stationing deadly weapons of offence and defence. Kautilya enu- merates the names of weapons like spades, axes, varieties of staffs, cudgels, hammers, discus, sataghnis, spears, tridents and bomboo sticks with pointed edges made of iron. He also recom- mends the collection of stones and explosives on the ramparts. It is evident that some of these weapons are meant ft) engage enemies from a distance with some being hurled at them from the ramparts, WEAPONS The