Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

ARCHITECTURE

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

buildings were functional (non-functional ornamentation was discouraged) especially the Shikargarhs and pyramidal structures. Thus the period from Qutb-ud-din Aibak to Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was a period of ruggedness coupled with lavishness and dignity, while from the time of Firoz there was simple elegance, functional emphasis and planned design and layout of greater quan- titative output. Firoz's work influenced the Sayyids and Lodis who added an important element, the cluster of superstructural cupolas, chattris, massive chajjas and low plinth, squattish domes and pro- fuse use of sandstone as seen in Isa Khan's tomb in Delhi and Gwalior (1547). The Lodis also introduced the Islamic mausoleum. In Delhi (in Siri fort) the Lodis converted the mausoleum into a complex, entered by a gallery and provided with a mosque, sepa- rately - which the Mughals copied in some of their mausolea, which conferred a ceremonial maqbara scheme on these structures. They also introduced the "double dome" (a separate inner and outer shell at two stages of the central rise)to confer slenderness to the build- ing as followed in Mughal times as in Sikander Lodi (1518). Until the time of the Lodis, there were 25 major mosques in Upper India (excluding Punjab and Kashmir), Malwa, Mandu, Delhi and Bengal built of durable materials. The essential elements of Islamic architecture, the arch, dome, vault and minar were included in pre-Mughal architecture, but suitably adopted through the Indian genius. Islamic architecture was unique, in the sense that it was the creative exposition of Indian environment, revealing several facets of Indian genius. It was different from Asian mosques which had their qibla designated by the backwall of the prayer chamber and did not have more than one central mihrab (a niche indicating the qibla or direction of prayer) for nearly three centuries. In India there was a very deliberate multiplication of the mihrab all along the mosque wall in front of every axial bay or of the facade arch. Besides a separate mihrab for the Zenana gallery at one end was provided for in a congregational (Jami) mosque. The creation of mosques showed that they formed a pattern — every town had a jami masjid, a few private mosques and one Idgah. The architectural efforts of the pre-Mughals have a rigid con- formity and conventionality in layout, elevation and facade design, which undergo a change in principles of spanning. In the Mughal period there was a total standardisation and idealisation of the building vogues. Art followed architectural traditions in which the Indian craftsmen excelled and the brick architectural vogues in _ which the Persians specialised (as in miniature painting). The variation in spanning was largely due to the adoption of lakhaur brick (in place of rubble stone) hearting which was more versatile. Mughals had superior building mortar (than hankar lime) leading to inlay cement. While the pre-Mughal exterior skyline was monoto- nous, with a domination of the dome, Mughal skyline was 3- dimensional, with massing screen walls (Buland Darwaza) and ex- pansive; domes sit lightly and there is linear rhythm. The style of constructions erected by the Afghans and the Mughals respectively differed visually although not stylistically (Islam Builds in India by K.V. Soundara Rajan). The former was marked by structural conservation, traditional ornamentation, of sandstone on marble used only for Quranic calligraphy and decora- tion of mihrabs etc. But with the Mughals, it was the opposite; their architecture was comprehensive, highly aesthetic, profuse usage of sandstone and marble, as well as established well-laid out cities

INTRODUCTION Islam imposed itself on the social and religious structure of India and nothing illustrates more graphically the religious diversity than the contrast between their places of worship and their archi- tecture. The mosque has no need of a central shrine, while the focal point of the temple is a sacred chamber. Architecturally the mosque is wholly visible and intelligible, while the temple is not; while the Hindus convey their meaning by iconography and carved figure compositions, the Muslims broke up their wall surfaces in patterns of different coloured marble and tiles. The contrast between spiri- tual and aesthetic concepts as embodied in these typical structures was great, but all differences became merged in a unified effort of craftsmanship. The real excellence of this Indo-Islamic architecture was due to the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian crafts- men, particularly in the art of working in stone. Islamic architecture in India passed through three different experiences : the Delhi, or Imperial, the Provincial and the Mughal. INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE The invasion of India by the Muslims from the 11th century on- wards led to the birth of Indo-Islamic architecture with its flowering during the Mughal period and its absorption into the Indian scene. When the pre-Mughal Sultans came to rule over India, they trained the local craftsmen to new assignments (instead of imposing the heritage of Islamic architecture in West Asia, North Africa and Mediterranean Europe); hence the initial stages were a bit clumsy. By the 13th century, the mosque, madrasa and maqbara became common building activity. Fairly extensive building programmes took place under the Sul- tanate of Delhi (Slave Dynasty). In the 13th century, was built the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque complex, with a massive arched screen, pillared double cloister, multiple entrances and a minar. The Arhai- di-ka- Johnpara mosque in Ajmer built by Iltutmish has a straight, flat roofed prayer chamber and a delimiting compound wall with or without cloisters. The earliest creations at Delhi, Kaman, Bayana, Badami and Ajmer were assembled out of ruins on standing local structures. At Bayana and Bharatpur the locally celebrated Ukha (Usha) Mandir (of 9th century A.D.) was converted into a mosque (subse- quently re-converted partly into the temple again) where it con- tained 10th-11th century characteristic pillars, vandana mala (flying arches) of exquisite workmanship and a Garuda banner. Along the pillars and backwall, were created mosque features such as mihrabs and perforated windows. The Sultanate, Khilji, Tugh- laq, Lodi, Sur and Mughal involvements in organising the construc- tion of the Temple-Mosque complex make the place important although the formative period was during the Tughlaq times. The same processes occurred at Dhar, Ajmer, Kaman etc. The architectural development of Delhi between the 13th and 16th centuries was unique and it reflects the rise and fall of the various dynasties — the Slave sultans, Balban, Khiljis, Tughlaqs (Sayyids and Lodis) till the Mughals. In this total period of 2V 2 centuries (pre-Mughal era) the capital was shifted from the initial Qila Rai Pithora to Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Kotla Firoz Shah in Firozabad. The later Tughlaqs brought a shift in constructional technique - - towards massive construction on an extensive scale. Firoz's