Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems

to the wearer. Brewing alcoholic drinks ( Somarasa ) was a widely prevalent practice. The pottery of the Vedic age is generally designated as Painted Grey ware (PG ware). The ceramic PG ware whose date ranges from 1000 BC - 400 B.C. is a thin grey ware, painted, wheel made, glossy and well baked. Decorations on the surface of the pottery include bands, diagonal lines, dots, dashes, circles and swastikas. The pottery types obtained by the excavation are bowls, cups and dishes. A number of iron objects have been found in association with PG ware in several excavation sites belonging to the Vedic age. These are Alangirpur in Meerut district (UP), Hastinapur (UP), Rupar(Punjab), Nasik (Maharashtra), Ujjain etc. The iron objects obtained are chisels, nails, hooks, bars, spikes, knives, daggers, bowls, arrowheads, sickles, crucibles, spoons, saucepans, axes, tongs etc. Iron smelting technique was in vogue in India between 1000-800 B.C. But unfortunately there are no evidences of practi- cal details of metallurgical methods in ancient India. POST-VEDIC PERIOD The post-Vedic period and the classical age that follows is spread between 600 B.C -740 A.D. A number of evidences avail- able during this period indicate an array of chemical practices that had reached a high degree ,of sophistication. Literary evidences in this regard are available in texts like Arthasastra of Kautilya (3- 4 century B.C.), the medical treatises of Caraka and Susruta ( l o r 2 century B.C.) and the Brihat samhita (4 A.D.) of Varahamihira. Kautilya’s Arthasastra is almost an encyclopedic work on all branches of knowledge which the King is supposed to be aware of to conduct the statecraft smoothly. One of the chapters describes the quality and colour of pearls and gems that are brought into the treasury. A chapter on mines and factories deals with the ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron. Heaviness of the ore in relation to the volume indicates a high metal content. According to Kautilya copper is described as heavy, soft, greenish or reddish in colour. The Director of mines is duty bound to establish factories for the purification cf ores of iron, copper, lead, tin, etc. The qualities of gold and silver are described in detail. Extracts of the roots of Kadali (Banana) and Vajra (Euphorbia antiquorum - a kind of hedge plant with white latex) were used for processing gold ore. Goldsmiths and silversmiths were experts in fashioning solid or hollow ornaments out of precious metals. Another chapter in the Arthasastra details the elaborate pro- cedures of brewing various kinds of alcoholic beverages. A wide array of plant products were used to ferment several types of drinks like medaka (rice wine), prasanna( bark and flowers of several plants), asava (ferment of wood apple fruit) and madhu (fermented grape juice). The two celebrated medical texts Caraka samhita and Susruta samhita give an account of the use of several minerals and metallic products such as silajitu (bitumen ),mandura (iron rust) anjana (black sulphide of antimony), swarna (gold), ayas (iron), kamsya (bronze), gandhaka (sulphur), tuttha (copper sulphate), rajata (silver), tuvari (alum) etc. Susruta samhita gives an account of production of alkalies ( ksara ) which are of three kinds - mrdu (mild), tiksna (strong) and madhyama (medium). Preparation of alkali involves utilization of nearly 25 types of plants (root, stem, leaf etc) and follows an elaborate procedure. The following is one

of the procedures - plant parts of selected species are kept along with pieces of lime stones and burnt into ash. Thirty-two measures of this ash are mixed with 6 measures of water and filtered, the process being repeated 21 times. The extract is then boiled in a large iron pan till it becomes clear and pungent. To eight measures of this liquid is added required quantities of burnt lime stone and conch shells. This is boiled again to evaporate the liquid. To the residue water is added again, boiled and the concentrated solution is decanted and preserved in a jar. Susruta samhita also mentions a number of salts like sauvar- cala (potassium nitrate), saindhava (rock salt), vida (a reddish brown salt), samudra (sodium chloride), romaka (a type of saline earth) etc. The text also mentions a number of organic acids. The Brihatsamhita by Varahamihira is an encyclopedia which gives a detailed account of gemmology, perfumery etc. The book gives a list of 16 natural sources (mostly plant products) which can be mixed in various proportions to produce as many as 174,720 types of perfumes. Plastering with meticulously prepared extracts of plants to give Vajralepa (hard covering) to the roofs of temples and mansions is also explained in Brihatsamhita. We will now discuss specifically chemical practices with glass, ceramics, iron and copper metallurgy in the post-Vedic and the classical age. Glass objects were unknown to the Indus Valley Civilization. The first sign of a glass object in India were beads noticed at excavations in Maski, a chalcolithic site belonging to the first millennium B.C. During the early centuries of the Christian era as archaeological evidences indicate, glass beads, bangles of various shades of colours (blue, green, red, white, orange, purple, etc.) and glass vessels were in regular use in ancient India. At Hastinapur and Taxila a number of glass beads belonging to 800-400 B.C. have been found. In the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh, an archaeological site, Kopia, has revealed the remnants of what must have been an ancient glass factory. Excavations at Nalanda, an important aca- demic centre of Buddhism, have revealed a number of opaque glass objects. Ceramic ware of the type gen- erally known as Northern black polished ware have been found in many places in south India. The ceramic wares were made on ro- tating wheels using fine clay ma- terial. They were subsequently baked in kilns. The pots were given a dressing of haematite be- fore baking to give them a glossy grey colour and metallic sound. The ceramic ware were finely polished with silica, lime, compounds of alumina and magnesia. Metal crafting perhaps had reached very exacting standards of fine workmanship during the classical age. Artisans who have specialized in copper, bronze, brass and iron had produced a number of eye catching objects. Vatsyayana, the author of the Kamasutra, regards Dhatu Vidya (metallurgy) as one of the 64 branches of knowledge. Hieun Tsang, the famous Chinese tourist, has given details of the use of brass and copper , the latter to fashion a huge image of Buddha. One of the remarkable discoveries of the classical age is the unearthing of a huge statue of Buddha (7'6" in height and about a ton