Eternal India Encyclopedia

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Ancient Concepts, Sciences & Systems

ARTHASHASTRA

exploit mines and timber and elephant forests, and at the same time to harass similar works of his enemy." A king should always prefer peace to war in consideration of the immense disadvantages in- volved in waging war against an enemy, for war leads to wastage of human life, drains resources etc. In case the Vijigisu (or would-be conqueror) feels himself inferior to his enemy he should enter into any of the various Sandhis described in-the treatise. "A single wheel cannot turn, " says the Arthashastra "and so government is only possible with assistance. Therefore a king should appoint councillors and listen to their advice." Book Two of the Arthashastra contains detailed instructions on the bureaucracy. It suggests that in order to ensure that no one official grew too powerful, departments should be headed by more than one chief officer. Officials should be transferred frequently and no govern- ment servant should be allowed to take any decision without refer- ence to his superior except in an emergency. The king is directed by Kautilya to examine constantly the character of all deparmental heads and their subordinates. No chief officer should be allowed to hold his office permanently. Stating it is not possible for officers directly dealing with government finance and revenue not to enjoy even slightly the taste of state money, Kautilya prescribes meas- ures against corruption. In Kautilya's penal code no Brahmin could be tortured for any criminal offence nor could he be awarded the death penalty (except for sedition). A Brahmin guilty of a criminal act could be branded on his forehead and banished from the country. Kautilya rejects the view of Bharadraja who advises the minis- ter to usurp the throne after his master's death. He declares that the succession should be preserved since usurpation of the throne by the minister may lead to popular anger. Kautilya is of the opinion that success eludes the person who consults the stars too much. Book 14 deals with certain recipes for the destruction of the king's enemies and for causing blindness, in- sanity and various kinds of diseases and deformities. Medical for- mulas are given for making a man invisible to his enemies and making him see at night. Incantations are to be uttered for causing men and animals to fall asleep. Kautilya's statecraft is based on an efficient system of espio- nage. The Arthashastra gives a detailed picture of the working of the secret service in two chapters. The high state functionaries, including even the ministers, were subject to the vigilance of the spies. There were spies planted in the establishment of an enemy who accepted salary from the enemy while engaged in collecting information about the latter's kingdom. The Arthashastra deals with all the main concerns of life - religion, ethics, family, marriage etc — because the Hindu state did not limit itself to police functions, the maintenance of law and order and the administration of justice. It was all-pervading and touched the whole of life. Refer K-30

Arthashastra is defined by Kautilya as "the science which treats of the means of acquiring and ruling the earth". In other words the art of government in the widest sense. The 15 books of Kautilya's Arthashastra were produced probably in the fourth cen- tury B.C. It was not the first work of its kind. There wfere four distinct schools (those of Manu, Brhaspati and Ushanas) and thirteen individual teachers of Arthashastras including Visalakhsa and Bharadraja, before Kautilya. The loss of this fairly extensive literature is to be attributed to the masterly treatise of Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta Maurya who was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. Alexander's incursions into India (320-325 B.C.) had shown the need for establishing a central political and military power to exercise authority over the multiplicity of smaller states that were in existence at the time. According to the Latin historian, Justin, Chandragupta Maurya met Alexander in the Punjab but offended him with his blunt speech. The conqueror ordered that Chandragupta should be put to death. He escaped and while wandering in the Vindhya forest he is said to have been joined by Kautilya (or Chanakya), a Brahmin who had travelled there from his home in Taxila. With the help of treasure found buried under- ground he gathered an army for the young Chandragupta who succeeded to the Nanda throne in 321 B.C. and went on subdue the North-West, driving out the Greek garrisons and established the greatest of India's ancient empires. Kautilya's varied experience as the adviser to the ruler of the first great empire in Indian history is reflected in his Arthashastra. In general, moral considerations have no place in Kautilya's statecraft, its sole guiding principle being the interest of the State. He recommends without scruple any means, fair or foul, that may bring success against the enemy. Kautilya, however, generally agrees with Manu in recommend- ing mild and beneficial measures to be adopted towards a conquered country. The conqueror should "adopt the same mode of life, the same dress, language and customs as those of the people. He should follow the people in their faith with which they celebrate their national, religious and congregational festivals or amuse- ments." When a weak king is attacked by a powerful king he should seek the protection of a powerful king or shut himself up in an impreg- nable fort. If this is not possible the weak king should rather accept the most humiliating terms, biding his time to free himself from this situation. He should resort to intrigue by producing internal distur- bances through the agency of spies and destruction of stores and granaries. He may encompass the death of his enemy when enter- ing a temple to offer worship. He should be made to accept, through a pretended friend belonging to the weak king's camp, a supply of poisoned food for use in his capital city. Kautilya enumerates the following six-fold policy determining relations betwen states: 1) Sandhi (Treaty of Peace or Alliance 2) Vigraha (war) 3) Asana (Neutrality) 4) Yana (making prepara- tions for war without actually declaring war 5) Samshraya (seeking the protection of another) 6) Dvaidhibhava (making peace with one and waging war with another). Kautilya discusses in detail the conditions under which a ruler should adopt one or the other of these policies. The sole guiding principle is the material welfare of the state : "A wise king", says Kautilya, "shall observe that form of policy which, in his opinion, enables him to build forts, to construct buildings and commercial roads, to open plantations and villages, to

SELECTED REFERENCES

Indian Inheritance. Vol III Science and Society. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1956

The Cultural Heritage of India Vol II Ramakrishna Mission 1969.

The Wonder that was India, A.L. Basham, London 1969.