Eternal India Encyclopedia

Eternal India encyclopedia

LIFESTYLES

the arena unarmed. They Made no attempt to kill the bull but tried to master it, The bull fight was looked on as an ordeal to test the manhood of young men. Girls who were among the spectators would choose their husbands from the successful competitors. Animal fighting was also popular with the Mughal emperors and their courtiers. There were fights between elephants and between men and animals. Jehangir once ordered a Pathan to wrestle with 3 lion and after the man had been killed he sent in ten more to wrestle with the beast. All the ten were seriously injured and three lost their lives. The other outdoor amusements were wrestling, polo and pigeon-flying. Polo known as Chugan or Chaugan was introduced into India by the early Muslim rulers of India. Kutb-ud-din Aikab met with his death while playing polo. Abul Fazal, Akbar's chronicler, writes : "Superficial observers regard the game as a mere amusement and consider it mere play. But those with more exalted views see in it a means of learning promptitude and decision-making. Strong men learn, in playing the game, the art of riding, And the animals learn to perform feats of ability and to obey the reins, It tests the value of a man and strengthens bonds of friendship. Hence His Majesty is very fond of this game. For the sake of adding splendour to the game, His Majesty has knobs of gold and silver fixed to the Chaugan sticks. If one of them breaks, any player that gets hold of the pieces may keep them." We are told that in 1564 Akbar played polo continuously for many days. The game lost its popularity in the reign of his successors. Pigeon flying was also popular. Akbar learnt it from one of his tutors and ascending the throne kept more than 20,000 pigeons. MARRIAGE AND DOWRY The child marriage of girls appears to have come into vogue in late medieval times. There is no indication that child marriage was practised in early times since the heroines of early Indian literature were apparently married only when they were fully grown. The Sushruta Samhita, the text book on Indian medicine compiled in the 4th century A.D., states that the best children are produced by mothers who are sixteen. Some authorities have suggested that child marriages became prevalent with parents marrying their daughters well before puberty lest they bring disgrace to them when they grew up. Moreover a daughter would prove to be an economic burden and, therefore, it was better to get her married as soon as possible. These early marriages were no doubt in the nature of betrothals since the actual consummation took place much later after the attainment of puberty. But the fact is that the custom was one of the many evils in medieval India and was in vogue among Hindus as well as Muslims. Political and social circumstances compelled the marriage of girls, at least among the Hindus, at a very early age. Custom forbade girls to remain in the house after they had attained the age of six to eight years. According to Mukumdarma, the author of a famous Bengali poem Chanimangala, written between 1544 and 1555 A.D., a father who could give his daughter in marriage in her ninth year was considered lucky and worthy of the favours of God.” The custom had become so rigidly coercive that a Maratta general who could

not arrange the marriage of his daughter at nine could not help expressing his anxiety in a letter to his home from the battle field: "If the marriage is postponed to the next year, the bride will be as old as ten. It will be a veritable calamity and a scandal.” No attempt seems to have been made to check the evil till the advent of Akbar. The enlightened monarch was of the opinion that the offspring of such marriages would be unhealthy weaklings and issued orders that boys were not to marry before the age of 16 and girls before 14. He also decreed that the consent of the bride and bridegroom, together with the permission of the parents was essential for the confirmation of a marriage. It was the duty of the Kotwal to verify and note down the ages of the couple, before giving consent to the marriage. Although Badauni writes that in consequence corruption became rife and large profits found their way into the pockets of the police officers, he admits that “no son or daughter of a person was allowed to be married until their ages were investigated by the chief police officer.” This order was not rigorously enforced or renewed by the later emperors and must have fallen into disuse. Monogamy was the rule although polygamy was not unknown. Rich and very wealthy persons who could afford more than one wife practised polygamy but the ordinary people were monogamous. The Arthashastra of Kautilya lays down various rules with a view to discouraging wanton polygamy, including the payment of compensation for the first wife. Almost all the travellers, Alberuni, Della Vale, Mandelso, Hamilton, Orme and Stavorinus, who visited India during the medieval period - testify that the Hindus practised monogamy and married a second time only if the first wife proved to be barren. However, the Muslims practised polygamy. Akbar who considered it highly injurious to a man’s health, and also detrimental to domestic peace, to have more than one wife consulted the ulema in his famous Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri on the question. In spite of the decision of the ulema that a man might marry any number of wives by mutah (a temporary marriage among Shias ) but only four by nikha, Akbar issued orders that a man of ordinary means should not marry more than one wife, unless the first was barren. Dowry appears to have come into vogue from the earliest times and has persisted down to the present day. The complicated and expensive ceremonies by which the marriage was solemnised, together with payment of dowry, imposed a heavy burden on the bride’s family. The contrary practice of bride-price, the payment of money by the bridegroom, was also prevalent.

The ancient texts enumerate eight types of marriages 1. Brahma, marriage of a girl to a man of the same class after the payment of dowry. 2. Daiva in which a householder gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee. 3. Arsa in which a token bride-price of a cow and bull are paid in place of the dowry. 4. Prajapaty in which the father gives the girl without dowry or demanding bride-price.